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Birds in Celtic Lore: An Overview v2.0 by Dawn O'Laoghaire Celtic lore has numerous traditions associated with birds. Bird lore originated in proto-Celtic and Celtic Europe, and continued into the immigration to the British Islands, and after the introduction of Christianity. (1) Birds represented the messengers and servants of gods, omens of good or evil, bringers of luck, omens of death, and sacrificial animals. (2) Professor Miranda Green attributes the veneration of birds by the Celts to both the general characteristics of birds and the particular qualities of individual species. (3) The general qualities of birds which evoked religious or symbolic important for various Celtic cultures included their ability to leave the earth and fly high in the heavens. (4) The ability to fly evokes ideas of freedom, and birds could symbolize the ability of the human soul to leave the body after death. (5) Symbolism and function of specific species Cockeral Various customs and icons suggest an important relationship between chickens and roosters and the Otherworld. Julius Caesar remarked that the Britons did not eat chicken, hares or geese. Miranda Green speculates that a sacred taboo existed on the flesh of these creatures. (6) In iconography, cockerels are frequently associated with specific deities. In Roman and Romano-Celtic contexts, Mercury is frequently accompanied by a cockerel. (7) An unnamed goddess at Corstopitum is depicted next to an altar with a cockerel on it. (8) Green speculates that the cockerel on the altar may represent a sacrifice. In a Gaelic context, cocks were used as sacrificial animals. Cockerels were associated with Imbolc, perhaps because Imbolc is a spring festival and cocks herald the return of the sun each morning. According to popular folklore, a cock was often sacrificed at Imbolc by interring it alive, at the point where three steams join. (9) Cock fighting was popular in Scotland on Imbolc. (10) Crane In a Romano-Celtic context, cranes are associated with war. In one depiction, Mars and Victory are shown with cranes and geese. (11) This association may come from native Celtic tradition. In the Irish Book of Leinster, Midhir, a god of the Tuatha De Dannan, has three cranes who guard his sidh, but also rob warriors of their courage and will to fight. (12). In Gaulish locations, crane icons have been found on helmets and on shields. (13) In Irish myths, cranes are frequently shape-changed women. Manannan has a crane bag full of treasures; the bag is made from the skin of a shape-changed woman. (14) In another story, Finn is saved from falling to his death over a cliff by his grandmother, who transforms herself into a crane and rescues him. (15). Irish and Scottish folk tradition made eating the flesh of a crane taboo. Ross attributes this taboo to a belief that cranes are shape-changed people or deities. (16) Scottish Highland tradition held that feeding the flesh a crane to a person who had lived too long was a means of ensuring that person’s death. (17) Cranes are also associated with unpleasant or worthless women. (18) Crow Many Celtic deities were associated with carrion birds. In any given iconography, it is often difficult to distinguish between crows and ravens. The Irish goddess Macha was called “Crow,” as was the goddess Badbh (“Badbh Cath” or Battle Crow). (19) The Morrigan could change between a human form and a crow form. (20). After Cu Chulain’s death, the Morrigan approaches his body in the form of a crow, sweeping down from heaven and uttering three cries over his body before alighting in a hawthorn bush near the body. (21) Crows and ravens were birds of death, because of their scavenging habits, and the Irish war goddesses with whom crows are associated prophecy death, disaster, and defeat for those to whom they appeared. (22) In Gaelic and Welsh lore, a crow that alighted on the roof of a home was an evil omen. (23). On some Celtic coins, crows are shown riding on the backs of horses. (24) The association of horses and crows is particularly interesting because the goddess Macha is associated with horses in addition to being called “Crow.” (25). One famous tale involves Macha giving birth after out-racing the horses of a king. After giving birth Macha prophesies doom and curses the men who forced her to race. (26) Thus, Macha in her associations with crows, horses, motherhood, prophecy, death and disaster, is an important example of the complex and multi-layered functions of goddesses in the Gaelic tradition. Duck Ducks were important solar symbols in early Celtic culture. In art recovered from Urnfield deposits (dated at approximately 1300 BC), ducks are frequently shown flanking a solar wheel or flanking the prow and stern of a boat which carries the disc of the sun. (27). The solar symbolism was carried over into the La Tene period (beginning in the early 5th century BC) where it is found on torcs and other artwork. (28). Anne Ross attributes the duck imagery in torcs and other later Celtic art as remnants of an earlier solar cult. (29) The Continental goddess of the Seine River, Sequana, has been found to be depicted as standing in a boat in the form of a duck. (30) The duck has a cake in its mouth which may represent fertility or sacrifice. (31) Eagle Numerous folk beliefs are attributed to eagles. One strain of the tradition describes the ability of some men to take on the form of an eagle. In Welsh mythology, Lleu (who may be one and the same with the Irish Lugh) is changed into an eagle when his wife attempts to murder him. (32). In another Welsh myth states that a nephew of King Arthur speaks to him in the shape of eagle; rather than being transformed into an eagle, the story seems to indicate that the dead man’s soul takes on the shape of an eagle after death. (33) In a poem from the Book of Taliesin, Taliesin claims to have been an eagle. (34) Various heroes from Irish mythology are transformed into the shape of an eagle at one point or another. (35) On the Continent, eagles are associated with the sun- god Taranis, who is described as the “Thunderer.” (36) Taranis is frequently portrayed with a solar wheel. (37). The cult of the sun-god Taranis merged somewhat with the cult of Roman sky-god, and thus the association of eagles with Taranis may have been borrowed from the Roman tradition. (38) Goose In some Celtic contexts, geese are associated with war and with an unnamed Celtic god of war. In a Pre-Roman temple (third or second century BC) located at Roquepertuse, geese are portrayed with horses around the altar. Found within the temple were several human heads; the heads were those of adult men of approximately twenty to forty years of age. (39). In a later Romano-Celtic dedicated to Mars, similar offerings of male heads have been found. (40) In Central Europe and Eastern Europe, geese have been found buried in the graves of Iron Age Celtic warriors. (41). The association of geese with warriors or war gods may have been because of the natural aggressiveness of geese. Some icons of Epona show the Gaulish goddess riding on a horned goose, rather than the more usual horse. (42) The tie between Epona, who has both war and fertility aspects, with both geese and horses mirrors somewhat the tie between Macha, horses, and crows. In addition to her motherhood and fertility aspects, Epona also is associated with war and warriors. Epona was adopted and venerated by Roman soldiers. As with cockerels, Julius Caesar noted that Britons did not eat the flesh of geese, suggesting a sacred taboo. (43) Owl According to Anne Ross, owls are more popular as religious icons in early Celtic practice than they are in later traditions. A torc from about 400 BC, found in Rheinheim, show a goddess from whose head an owl emerges. (44) Owls are repeatedly depicted in La Tene art, often with images of human heads, suggesting that they were important religious objects. (45) Few references to owls exist in the Romano-Celtic period. One important reference, however, is the story of Lleu and his magical wife Blodeuwedd. Lugh’s mother Arianrhod prohibits him from marrying anyone but a woman of her choosing. Lleu has a magical wife created for him from flowers by the magician Gwydion. The girl, Blodeuwedd, is created from flowers. Blodeuwedd eventually rebels, takes a lover, and plots her husband’s death. When Lleu is killed he is transformed into an eagle, taking flight and landing on an oak tree. Blodeuwedd is transformed into an owl. (46) The names for the bird in Scots Gaelic and Welsh are unpleasant. In modern Scots Gaelic, owls are known as “cailleach oidhche” or “night hag.” In Welsh it is called “aderyn y corff,” or “corpse bird,” in addition to the more usual term “dyllvan.” (47) Two folktales suggest why the owl flies by night. In a Welsh tale, the wren tricks his way into becoming king of the birds. The other birds are so angry that they decide to drown the wren in a pan of tears. All goes well until the foolish owl clumsily overturns the pan, permitting the wren to go free. The other birds become angry with the owl, and he is exiled to fly alone by night. (48) In a Breton folktale, the clever wren descends into hell to retrieve fire for the use of the birds. The wren places a burning coal against his breast. As he flies from hell, the flames leap out and burn his tail off. Each bird gives the wren a feather from its own tail in gratitude. Only the selfish owl refuse. Again this tale, the other birds are so angry with the selfish owl that he is exiled to fly alone by night. (49) Ross believes the owl may be associated with a female goddess who had both fertility and cthonic aspects. In Gallo-Roman iconography, the owl appears on some monuments with a goddess. The goddess is not Minerva, and Ross speculates that the owl’s female associations, when considered with the Scots Gaelic name for “owl,” suggest a goddess with had both fertility and cthonic aspects. (50) Miranda Green echoes Ross’s suggestions that the owl may be an artifact of a goddess cult when considering the Lleu- Blodeuwedd myth. (51) Raven Miranda Green states that ravens is a cthonic emblem, associated with darkness and death. (52) Ravens were also associated with magic and divination. (53) Magic ravens, for example, warn the Irish god Lugh of the approach of the Fomorians. (54) In Lyons, Lugus (a god who is possibly one and the same with the Irish Lugh) is depicted with ravens. (55). The association of the Celtic god Lugus with ravens may reflect a wisdom association between the god and ravens, similar to the association of Odin with ravens. (56) Ravens, instead of crows, are sometimes said to be the form in which the Morrigan appears. (57) Swan Swans are important mythological and symbols from the earliest phases of Celtic pre-history. Swans appear as a cult bird in artifacts found in the Urnfield and Hallstatt phases of European prehistory. (58) In Hallstatt and Urnfield iconography, swans are associated with solar symbols. Chained birds appear together, with the chain of the foremost bird being linked to a solar wheel. (59) Irish literary references to swans abound. A large group of magical swans appear at the time of Cu Chulain’s conception and ravage the area around the royal palace at Emain Macha. (60) As an adult, Cu Chulain is associated with a large flock of swans. (61) The magical birds alight in a flock on a lake at Samhain. Cu Chulain captures the flock and gives two each to the women, who wish to wear one on either shoulder. Only Cu Chulain’s wife does not receive a bird. Faced with her anger, Cu Chulain promises to capture the most beautiful birds for her. Two birds linked by a red chain of gold appear and light on the lake. The birds cast a sleep spell which does not affect Cu Chulain or his wife. Cu Chulain starts to attack the birds, but his wife senses they have magical powers and warns him against attacking. Despite his wife’s warning, Cu Chulain attacks and wounds one of the birds through a wing. Both birds submerge under the water. Later Fand and her sister Li Ban appear. Having put aside their bird form, Fand and Li Ban beat Cu Chulain until he is unconscious. (61) Swans wearing chains of precious metals appear in other stories as well. In the Dream of Oenghus, Oenghus, son of the Dagda, falls in love with Caer Ibormeith (Yew Berry) when he sees her in a dream. When he visits the lake where she lives, he sees 150 women. The women are paired with a silver chain between them. Caer wears a chain of gold. Caer and her followers take the shape of a swan every other year. The shape change takes place at Samhain. Oenghus must take Caer in the shape of a swan before he can marry her. Oenghus assumes the shape of a swan and calls Caer to him. They fly around the lake three times, casting a sleep spell. They then fly off to Oenghus’s castle. (62) Another tale involving swans is the tale of the children of the sea-god Lir. Lir’s children are transformed into swans by their jealous step-mother Eva. While in the forms of swans, the children must spend 300 years in each of three places. Afterwards, when a prince of the North marries a princess of the South, the children hear a bell which is the voice of Christianity. When this occurs, they are restored to human form, but being very old, they die. They are buried by a Christian priest. (63) The Welsh goddess Rhiannon is associated with magical birds, as well as with horses. The three birds of Rhiannon sing sweetly, and can lull the living to sleep or wake the dead. (64) The sleep spell ability of these birds suggest that they may been swans. Wren In Irish tradition, wrens are called the king of the birds, soul of the oak, and the bird of the druids. (65) Wrens were associated with divination. (66) Hunting the wren is a tradition carried out in both Gaelic and Brythonic Celtic communities. In Ireland, the Isle of Man, and Wales, the wren hunt occurs on St. Stephen’s Day, the day after Christmas. Young boys search the bushes for a wren, catch it and kill it. Irish and Manx wren boys then go door to door with the dead bird, crying “The smallest and still the king!” At each house they visit the boys are given a coin and the household receives a wren feather which will insure good fortune. (67) On the Isle of Man, the bird must be caught between dawn and sunrise, suggesting a liminal aspect to the festival, which occurs near the time of the winter solstice. (68) In Scotland, the wren hunt occurs on New Year’s Day. The wren is not captured, but is instead is set free after brightly colored ribbons are tied to its legs. (69) To kill a wren at other times of the year is bad luck, which re-emphasizes a sacrificial element to this tradition involving the bird of the druids. (70) Other tales describe the wren as treacherous. Various tales describe the wren as beating his wings against the shields of soldiers to betray them to the enemy. (71) In another tale, the wren is named “Finn’s Doctor” because it bites Finn on the ear when he is hiding from an enemy. (72) The wren is believed to have betrayed St. Stephen, an alternate explanation for the timing of the traditional wren hunt. (73) According to Dathai Oh Ogain, traditional antipathy towards wrens may be the result of an attempt by medieval religious leaders to abolish remaining druidic practices regarding wrens. (74) One medieval text provides a detailed list of omens based on the movements of a wren. (75) End Notes Bibliography by Dawn O'Laoghaire |
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