A Short History of the Conflict In Northern Ireland

by Donnchadh Cremin

INTRODUCTION

The struggle in Northern Ireland is one of the most publicized, yet least understood, conflicts in the world today. This confusion is somewhat understandable considering the roots of contention stretch all the way back to the twelfth century. American society has always been involved in the Anglo-Irish dispute, at least on a psychological level. Millions of United States citizens are of Irish ancestry and have emotional links to the tiny island nation. Additionally, many of our political and social institutions are derived from an English heritage. It is therefore not surprising that so many Americans take a keen interest in the progress of the conflict. Hundreds of books and articles have been written on the subject in this country, and Hollywood has released several feature films popularizing specific historical episodes of the conflict in the last several years alone. It is also a well known fact that the majority of funding for the Irish Republican Army (IRA) comes from American sources. Despite this active interest, few Americans fully understand the issues and history behind the strife in Northern Ireland. This paper presents a short history of the Anglo-Irish conflict. No brief survey can hope to cover all the circumstances that are relevant to this issue, but examining key events will hopefully dispel many of the common myths and misconceptions surrounding the dispute.

THE ROOTS OF CONFLICT, 1171-1914

In 1171 AD. King Henry II of England invaded Ireland. The Irish at this point in their history were a series of clans and petty kingdoms, unified only by a common Celtic heritage and Christianity. The English were initially victorious, but the Irish slowly began taking back their land over the next several decades. By the dawn of the 14th century the Irish had re-conquered most of their island. The situation remained relatively stable until 1536 AD when King Henry VIII ended his allegiance to the Roman church and began the Protestant reformation in England. Five years later Henry proclaimed himself King of Ireland. Henry's daughter, Queen Elizabeth (1558 - 1603), intensified the struggle, this time with the goal of eradicating Catholicism in Ireland. The Irish found themselves struggling not only for land but for their souls as well. In the 1590's the clans of Ulster, Ireland's most northwest province, rose up in rebellion against their English overlords. The uprising was crushed, and after the defeat most of the clan nobles fled to France. In order to ensure the fealty of Ulster, the next King of England, James I, seized a majority of the territory for the crown and displaced its Irish inhabitants. He then distributed the land amongst his most ardent supports, primarily Scottish Protestants. This "planting" of loyal British subjects in the North of Ireland was the inception of what became known as the Ulster Plantation. The founding of the plantation left a large portion of the island firmly loyal to the crown, and has proven itself the monumental event in Anglo - Irish history. Another rebellion against British rule erupted in 1641, and again succeeded in temporarily regaining control over most of the island. In 1649 Oliver Cromwell invaded Ireland with a massive force and devastated the country. The atrocities his army committed are still remembered in Ireland today; at Drogheda, 30,000 men, woman, and children were butchered. In 1650 Cromwell returned to England leaving behind him an impoverished and devastated nation.

In 1688 the Glorious Revolution occurred in England. The Catholic King James II was deposed and replaced with William III of Orange. The dethroned James still had many supporters, mostly in Scotland and Ireland. In 1689 he invaded Ireland with a small army, rallying many Irish nobles to his side. In 1690 the forces of James and William fought the climactic battle of the campaign along the banks of the Boyne River. James was defeated and the rebellion crushed. In retaliation, Parliament enacted the Penal Laws, which stripped the Irish of almost all their civil rights. These laws remained in effect for almost a century.

Armed uprisings against British rule continued sporadically over the next century and a half. Rebellions occurred in 1798, 1803, 1848, and 1867, all ending in the total defeat of the Irish. The period was characterized by the growth of popular support for an independent Irish Parliament and the formation of modern style revolutionary organizations. In 1858 the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) was formed. The members of this group were called Fenians, a Gaelic word meaning 'warriors.' American funding supported the IRB led uprising of 1867, establishing a tradition of financial backing for Irish revolutionaries that has continued to this day. After the rebellion was put down the IRB went underground. Forty-nine years would pass before the Irish again attempted armed resistance to British rule.

A long period of parliamentary agitation followed the 1867 uprising. Internal political pressures led the British Liberal government to announce its support for the Home Rule Bill in 1911, an act granting Irish independence. Resistance to Home Rule materialized quickly in Northern Ireland. The mostly Protestant Scotch-Irish were opposed to leaving the British Empire and pledged to resist by force. In 1913 the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) was formed, a paramilitary organization of some 100,000 members that vowed to fight the adoption of Home Rule in Ulster. In response, the republicans formed the Irish Volunteers to counter the UVF. In September 1914 Home Rule passed in Parliament, but the outbreak of World War I postponed its implementation indefinitely. Many Irish republicans saw this as a golden opportunity to rebel against a distracted Britain, while others believed supporting the war would lead a grateful England to grant Irish independence. A majority of the Irish Volunteers supported the latter course. A small faction did not, however, and they planned to make Britain free Ireland by force of arms.

THE EASTER REBELLION AND CIVIL WAR (1916-1923)

On April 24, 1916 a small group of armed men and woman seized several key locations in the city of Dublin. After fortifying their positions the rebels proclaimed themselves the Provisional Government of the Irish Republic, and dubbed their armed forces the Irish Republican Army. They pledged "equal rights and equal opportunities" for all Irish people, and hoped this proclamation would rally the civilian populace to their side. This support never materialized. In response to this perceived betrayal, the British deployed troops and overwhelming firepower to Dublin. The rebels hung on for a week before finally surrendering. The British retaliated against the IRA , executing thirteen of the rebellion's leaders in an attempt to discourage further resistance. The results were exactly the opposite of what the British intended. The Irish public was enraged by the executions, and those killed were elevated to the status of martyrs. The independence movement gained massive public support from that day forward. Though the Easter Rebellion was a tactical failure for the IRA, it proved a strategic victory in the movement towards Irish independence.

In 1918 the political party Sinn Fein ( 'Ourselves Alone') won a majority in Irish parliamentary elections. The delegates refused to take their seats en masse, and in January 1919 they formed the first Irish National Assembly, or Dail Eireann. Eamon de Valera was chosen as the president of the newly declared Irish Republic. That same day the IRA gunned down two members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC). This began the Anglo - Irish War, more commonly known as The Black and Tan War. The charismatic Michael Collins led the Irish war effort. He organized a guerrilla campaign that relied on raids by his 'Flying Columns', assassinations, and intimidation. The IRA never had more than 5,000 men under arms, but they had the advantages of fighting on their home ground and the support of a friendly populace. In 1921 both sides were tired of the conflict, and a cease fire was finally declared on 11 July.

Peace negotiations began in London, and on December 6, 1921 the Anglo - Irish Treaty was signed. It contained two highly controversial points. First, it set up an 'Irish Free State' rather than a republic, making Ireland a free dominion within the commonwealth rather than an independent nation. Second, Ireland was split into two sections. Twenty-six counties became part of the Free State while six of the nine provinces of Ulster remained under British control. After weeks of harsh debate the Irish Parliament ratified the treaty on January 7, 1922. De Valera resigned in protest, and a majority of the IRA refused to recognize the new government. In April of that year the IRA seized a section of Dublin. Negotiations failed, and in June 1922 Free State forces, under the command of Michael Collins, attacked IRA positions. The Irish Civil War had begun. It lasted until 1923 when the IRA called for a cessation of all hostilities. The partition of Northern Ireland and the debate over the Anglo-Irish treaty would continue, and these issues are the basis of the conflict in the country today.

FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT (1923 - 1997)

Since the end of the civil war the IRA has conducted an on-again, off-again guerrilla war against the British in Northern Ireland. In 1949 Ireland left the British Commonwealth and became a republic; however, the six counties of Northern Ireland remained under the Union Jack. In 1969 civil rights demonstrations by the Catholic minority of Ulster led to the outbreak of hostilities between Catholics and Protestants. This period, commonly referred to as 'The Troubles,' was characterized by an IRA campaign of urban guerrilla warfare against British forces, the bombing of economic centers in northern cities and towns, and terrorist attacks in Britain. This pattern of resistance continued at varying levels of intensity for the next two decades.

On August 31, 1994 the IRA made an historic declaration calling for a cessation of all its military operations. No real understanding had been reached between the two sides, but the Irish Peace Initiative proposed by Sinn Fein president Jerry Adams was supported in both Dublin and London. Peace negotiations began, but the British and the IRA remained intractable on several key points, primarily IRA disarmament and British troop withdrawals from Ulster. On February 9, 1996 the IRA announced the renewal of military operations. A limited bombing campaign resumed against targets in Northern Ireland but caused few casualties and only minor damage. On July 20th, 1997 the IRA called another temporary cease-fire in an attempt to restart the peace negotiations. Substantive peace negotiations resumed on September 15, 1997. Sinn Fein was invited to attend, along with representatives from London and Dublin. The IRA has announced its willingness to maintain the cease-fire as long as the talks appear to be making progress. At present the negotiations are continuing.

CONCLUSION

This survey has detailed some of the key events in the history of the Anglo-Irish conflict. The current negotiations are a positive sign that a peaceful settlement to this centuries old dispute may soon be at hand. A resolution to the conflict would undoubtedly be beneficial to both Britain and Ireland. The conflict is an economic drain on both nations. Additionally, hostilities in Northern Ireland continue to have a negative impact on the relationship between the United States and Great Britain. Only time will tell if a lasting peace can finally be achieved in Ireland.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Coogan, Tim Pat. The IRA, A History. New York and London: Rhineheart Publishing, 1993.

Kleen, Bill. "Irish Military History, Part 2. The Easter Rising." Command, Issue 43, May 1997.

Smith, M.L.R. Fighting for Ireland? The Military Strategy of the Irish Republican Movement. London and New York: Routledge, 1995.

"The Irish Republican Army and the Armed Struggle in Irish Politics." Acquired 13 September 1997. Available from http://mypage.direct.ca/c/cquail/irahist.html.

prepared by Donnchadh Cremin

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