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Shamanism in Gaelic Culture (or What Do We Call Our People?) v1.0 by Iain Mac an tSaoir Western culture is very apt to create fads. Fads hit every conceivable area of our culture, from food to clothes to spirituality and religion. Several years ago, one fad was Native American spirituality. It became conventional to refer to Native American spiritualities and religions as 'shamanism'. A few years ago, it became the trend to see the spiritualities and religions of the various Celtic cultures as being 'shamanic'. Once again we see pop theology taking a toll on a culturally-based spiritual belief and practice. The horrendous price that is paid for this is the potential loss of the cultures on the one hand, and the incomplete knowledge of the cultures on the other. Let's take a look at what shamanism is, what jobs possess(ed) shamanic elements, and what those jobs were called in Gaelic culture. 'Shaman' is a word whose origin is with the Tungus people of Siberia. Interestingly enough, the Tungus people themselves have no word for 'shamanism', and the word 'shaman' itself is both a noun and a verb in that language. It was the reknowned theologian Mircea Eliade who defined 'shamanism' as a technique of ecstasy. He wrote, "The pre-eminently shamanic technique is the passage from one cosmic region to another - from earth to the sky or from earth to the underworld. The shaman knows the mystery of the breakthrough in plane. This communication among the cosmic zones is made possible by the very structure of the universe."(1) He based his definition on five set elements observable in the practices of the spiritual leaders of the Tungus people. Anthropologists, religious historians and other academians carried on the use of the term, using Eliades definition, to designate these practices as they were found in other tribal cultures. Shamanism is not a religion or group of religions, it is a set and defined group of practices.(2) Based on Eliades definition, 'shamanism' is held by academians to be an ancient magico-religious phenomenon in which the shaman is the master of an ecstatic state of being. In addition, the shaman will possess some particular magical specialty. The most common of these specialties is healing, but others exist. The distinguishing characteristic of shamanism is its focus on an ecstatic trance state. This altered state of awareness allows the spirit of the shaman to 'leave' the body, and ascend to the heavens, or descend into the underworld. They do this while maintaining control over their own consciousness. Typically, those who meet the definition of a shaman maintain spirit helpers with whom they communicate, at times utilizing these helpers to effect their work. Amongst the things found in the beliefs of those designated practitioners, in whose repetoire are found 'shamanic' elements, there is a type of mythos, about which Eliade states, "These myths refer to a time when communication between heaven and earth was possible; in consequence of a certain event or a ritual fault, the communication was broken off, but heroes and medicine men are nevertheless able to reestablish it."(3) It will be noticed that I stated that the person was designated to become a 'shaman'. Such a designation is usually determined by some traumatic experience. It is held by those cultures in which 'shamanic' practices occur, that the practitioners are chosen by some higher power(s) to be servants of their people in this capacity, and that the choice is shown by the aforementioned traumatic experience. It wasn't just anyone who decided to be a shaman who became one. By definition, the path to serving in this way was marked by five episodes in a course of initiation. Eliade defines these when he writes, "...The important moments of a shamanic initiation are these five; first, torture and violent dismemberment of the body; second, scraping away of the flesh until the body is reduced to a skeleton; third, substitution of the viscera and revealing of the blood; fourth, a period spent in Hell, during which the future shaman is taught by the souls of dead shamans and by 'demons'; fifth, an ascent to Heaven to obtain consecration from the God of Heaven"(4). No bookstore shamans here. Now unfortunately, in this day and age, every sort of holistic approach to spirituality is termed "shamanistic". Such also holds true for every method of interacting with the unseen that has any perceived antiquity attached to it. This is true even if the perceived antiquity isn't factual, with the 'ancient' method actually being only a matter of days or weeks old. The truth of the matter is that the very term 'shamanism' has come under fire because of its misuse. Much to the chagrin of Native American peoples, their religion is constantly referred to as 'shamanism'. This has allowed their spirituality to become a commodity that is literally sold. The result of this has been a literal Declaration of War, by the Lakota peoples, against those who exploit their spirituality (5). In the realms of academia the term has become one that is shied away from. It's not that the term, as clinical nomenclature, is inherently wrong. It is, however, a matter that the strict definition of the word, as established by Eliade, has degenerated into yet another Jungian, archetypal nighmare (pun intended). Hence, the cultural milieu in which these few, well-defined, elements are found is completely disregarded. The focus is placed on the very few practices alone, without regard for the beliefs, values, customs and other things of the culture in which those few practices are found. At this point, I would direct the reader back to a very important statement. I stated that, in addition to being a master of altered states of awareness, the shaman possesses some particular magical specialty; that the most common of these specialties is healing, but that others exist. Now I can begin to address the Gaelic culture in relation to these practices. Throughout the history of Gaelic culture, there have been those who utilize practices that may have been, or are, similar to those defined by Eliade. For the most part, these practices are of the nature of the magical specialty Eliade wrote about; there are very few instances where ecstatic states are referred to (though some do exist). However, these people were NOT and ARE NOT shamans. Let's look at some examples: Let us first start with the 'draoi' (druid in the vernacular). This is a grouping of people who appear to have had representation in each of the Celtic cultures. According to the Classical writers, the draoi were philosophers, doctors, recitors of law and a great many other things. The females in this group were called 'bandraoi'. Their status was a product of their educations, and their position in the culture has been defined by Peter Berresford Ellis as simply being the intelligentsia (6). This has been echoed by Ward Rutherford, who has referred to the druids as teachers (7), a statement that is hand in hand with Ellis' assessment of the druids as holding 'professorships'. Even Fergus Kelly recognized the many roles they played when he stated that they were, "priest, prophet, astrologer and teacher of the sons of nobles."(8) The draoi were then, arguably, people who possessed specialties in knowledge or ability. The workers of these skills each had their own job description, a title for what they did. One example is the physician, which was called 'midach.' The practices of the physician were highly regulated by law, and an entire Old Irish law text concerning physicians and their responsibilities, called _Bretha Déin Chécht_ or "Judgments of Dían Cécht", still exists (9). Physicians were supposed to be skilled in examinations, healing incantations and prayers, surgery and pharmacopoeia, as well as other methods of healing. In addition, the midach carried their healing herbs and instruments in a bag called a 'lés.' They also utilized a more holistic approach to healing and had their patients meditate, called 'dercad', to achieve a state of peace, called 'sitcháin'. A great many of the old techniques persist even into this era, including sweat baths (10). Though the 'midach' may have utilized prayers, incantations, herbs, meditation and sweat baths, they were not shamans; what they did does not fit the definition of a shaman.(There is also no known mythology as would be consistent with 'shamanism'.). Their approach was consistent with the culture and they are called 'midach.' Another example is the blacksmith, or 'Goba'. Imagine the awe in which was held the person who could mold rock into all manner of necessary implements (11). They would certainly be seen as having control of fire and land, even each of the Three Spheres that were held sacred by those of Celtic cultures (12). Theirs would be serious magic, indeed. Their special status in society is shown by their being part of the Nemed class, along with other highly skilled and trained people (13). Because of this, they, like others of the intellectual class, were exempt from the military service, clientship, and other things that were incumbent on members of the society (14). Yet all these things aside, the blacksmith wasn't a shaman. He was a Goba, and like all other skilled craftspeople, he possessed much more knowledge than the few things assigned by Eliade to a 'shaman'. The last example I will give here - though all of the skills could be established similarly - is that of the brehon, which in the Gaelic culture was called 'brithem'. These are people who recited the law, and whose words, because they carried the law, held much power and sway. To go against the law was to lose face, something no one could stand to do in such an honor-bound society as our ancestors had. Even the High King had to hear the law recited before he could act (15). There will no doubt be those who point out that the peoples of Celtic cultures utilized set and defined magical practices, in order to support their contention that there were Celtic shamans. The most widely known label for such a set of practices concerns what is vulgarly known as 'Crane Magic". This set of practices date back to the era of the draoi. The practicioners of this form of magic are called 'Córrguinech' (not shamans). What we know of these practices comes from the lore. According to Lady Gregory's "Gods and Fighting Men", the Crane Bag was owned by Manannan mac Lir (who is intrinsically connected with cranes). It was fabricated from the skin of a crane (specifically the skin of Aoife after she was transformed into a crane). This bag contained treasures which were only visible at high tide (the bag was full at high tide and empty at low tide). These treasures include: Manannan's house, shirt, and knife; Goibniu's belt and smith's hook; the King of Alba's shears; the King of Lochlann's helmet; the belt of fish-skin; the bones of Asal's pig (The same pig which Lugh commanded the Sons of Tuirenn to retrieve in payment for their having killed his father).(16) The Crane Bag was an object that, according to mythology, belonged to the Gods; as previously stated it belonged to Manannan, but passed to Cumal before coming into the possession of Fionn. What is interesting is that some people read the lore to say that Lugh was a master 'Córrguinech'. If this was the case then we can perhaps see some of the methodology involved at the Second Battle of Mag Tuired (Moy Tura). Here, when Lugh went against the Fomoriian king, he quite significantly assumed a one-legged, one-armed, one-eyed posture, and began hopping around on the one leg while reciting an incantation. Through this ritual he took on properties of OtherWorldliness, gaining the power of that realm.(17) While dancing and chanting - things popularly ascribed to 'shamanism' - are plainly evident, these acts have significance only within the understanding of the cultural milieu. Neither Lugh nor any other 'Córrguinech' was a shaman, even if there were some elements of what he did that may also be utilized by the Tungus peoples. With the coming of Christianity, the religious function of officiating the public sacrifices diminished and eventually became extinct. The draoi themselves did not disappear though; they evolved and adapted to their new environments. The various methodologies and purposes that formerly belonged to them became embodied in the ranks of a new phenomenon, the Filidh (18). A fili (FEE-la) is a poet, though they weren't just any ordinary poet. Filidh went through up to 20 years of training in formal schools. This set them apart from the bards who possessed a much lessor education and,therefore, status. A female fili was called 'banfhilíd (19). There are law tracts which state plainly that the Fili was higher in rank than the bard. One example of such a tract reads, "Bard dano; fer gin dliged foglama acht inntlicht fadesin". That tract is saying that a bard is a person without proper learning, but who possesses intellect. Nonetheless, the poetry of the Fili is often referred to as 'Bardic' poetry, even though some great differences exist which separate the two classes. All those things which were within the tradition of poetic composition were the purview of the Fili; these were usually sacred in nature and were always very formal. The bards, on the other hand, were the originators of epithets and such. Whereas a Fili inspired emotions, bards simply invoked emotions already presnt. The traditional sacred meters and other facets of the language were things to which the Fili were tightly bound. It was the strict bonds on individual experimentation that allowed for creation of metrical skill.(20) The Filidh had the right to bless, curse and cast other spells, called 'firt filed'. Like the draoi before them, the Fili could safely travel across territorial boundaries. Also like the draoi, they were often found expounding on the law, being engaged in other skills, as well as giving protection from the lawless and granting safety to others who traveled across territorial boundaries (21). One of the most potent tools at their disposal was the satire. This is a piece of verse composed to inflict harm on the lawless. It is properly called the 'Glam Diccim', and it was said to be able to cause a great many things to happen to its recipient, such as breaking out in rashes and other blemishes. It was effected by the poets going to a sacred tree and reciting the verse while repeatedly bowing away from the tree; involved was a definite magico-religious formulae involving the unseen world (The God/s.)(22). The purpose of the 'Glam Diccim' was to bring people back within the law, and as something very bound by law, it was itself legal. There were, however, also illegal satirists called 'cáinte.' These laid the curse of satires called 'rindile' on others without the authority of law; they were, in fact, illegal satires. While bringing to attention the different groups of poets, it needs to be stated that there was another group of note. These were the "Geilt". These particular poets were those who once had been warriors, but who had become so affected by the carnage of war, that they took up the life of a hermit. Avoiding contact with other humans, they lived alone in the forest and were vegetarians. The poetic talent which they held in common with the Filidh, dealt almost exclusively with nature, and to them are ascribed feats of great physical prowess.(23) Another area where the Filidh preserved some measure of the activities of the druids was in the area of ritual designed to find other states of awarness. There were three such rituals: Imbas Forosnai, Tenm Laida and Dichetal do chennaib. Each of these three are stylized rituals using techniques that would certainly fit Eliades definition of 'shamanism', including dance, chants, deprivations, and even the consuming of special foods. The term 'imbas' has become as debased in its usage as has the term 'shamanism'; it is actually poetic inspiration gained through ritually entered ecstatic states of altered awareness.(24) In the Tain we are told that Scathach took on the Imbas Fornosai to look into the future and give predictions for CuChullain (25). As we know, that is a specific ritual, one which predates the demise of the draoi and the institution of the Filidh. Yet we definitely see that the rites of Imbas Forosnai, Tenm Laida and Dichetal do chennaib were also used for prophecy. Those whose jobs were specifically as seers were called fháith (26), women were called 'banfhlaith' (27). Because of their use of techniques known to have been the perview of the Filidh, the fháith were probably themselves Filidh whose 'magical' specialty was prophecy. A whole branch of practitioners who served as oracles are thought to have at one time been called 'Gruagach' [Scottish Gaelic], though the term eventually degenerated to simply denote a female brownie (28). Seers did not ever go away, they are still around to this day in the rural areas. Today, the seer is called 'frìtheir', and their divinatory work is called 'frìth'. (29) Above I mentioned the physicians, or the 'midach.' The patron god of the 'midach' was Déin Chécht, who was a surgeon. He had two children, Miach, his son, and Airmid, his daughter. The story goes that when Nuadh lost his arm at the first Battle of Maig Tuired, it was Miach who eventually restored to Nuada a real arm. Miach had surpassed his father in the skills of healing. Déin Chécht was jealous that his son surpassed him, and killed him. From where Miach's body was buried there grew 365 herbs, each of which would heal an illness. One day Déin Chécht found Airmid collecting these herbs, so that she might use them to heal. Déin Chécht, in anger, scattered the herbs so that no one might know what each herb was used to heal.(30) This might seem the end of the matter, but in other lore, Déin Chécht works with his daughter in guarding the spring of health that restored the health of Tuath De Danann warriors who fought at the Second Battle of Maig Tuired (31). Some read into the tales surrounding these three personages, that there were two schools of healing arts in the old culture. One being that of the surgeon, and the other being the skills of the herbal healer. Traditionally, it would seem that women were most closely associated with herbal healing and midwifery. These herbal healers would be the traditional wise women. The functions of these women were actually many, and there wasn't just one job description involved. There were several specialties involved in this branch, and the ones noted here are still found in the old countries. Starting with birth, there was the midwife who was called a banghluin (32). The traditional wise women were involved in other practices that were probably part of their overall duties. There were also practitioners of spells and and other things including the evil eye. One type of spell was called "deibh buidseachd", a 'framing spell' enacted by weaving colors in a specific way. These practicioners also used effigies called "corp creadha" (clay body) and other things to bring disease upon their victim. The Evil Eye itself was called 'droch shuil'.(33) The effects of the Evil Eye were called 'cronachadh'. The cure for the evil eye was called 'beannachadh', blessing (34). Those who purposely caused such harm are those who come to mind when the word 'witch' is used. One word used to denote a witch is 'cailleach', with the term denoting one who causes hardships. While the individual person has a great many tools at their disposal for avoiding the eye, sometimes an outsider had to be brought in. This was when all other charms were ineffective. This was the wise woman, who used their knowledge to heal. This outsider had about them what was called "Eolas", which is a hidden knowledge of formulary magic used to combat the equally formulary ill magic (35). The person with the Eolas would often use the same tools and charms as 'cailleach' had used, but with distinct meterical verse different from that used by the 'cailleach'. Eolas was also used to cure ailments and disease, and is often found associated with the heads at the sacred wells, and the attendants of those wells (36). Amongst the known rites, were 'water rites', 'fire rites' which are called Beannachadh na Cuairte [Blessing of the Circle] and others. In particular 'Beannachadh na Cuairte' was used for curing a sick or dwindling child, as well as to cure the Evil Eye (37), which is the tie-in that establishes the wise women as healers. At the end of life the 'anumcara' [soul friend] was called. This person helped in the transition from life to death, often administering pain relieving herbs to give comfort. At the cessation of life they would recite specific incantations to help the spirit go on into the next world. They perhaps at one time administered the final bathing of the body prior to burial. (38) While these practitioners utilized forms of magic that some will no doubt label as primitive, and while their healing techniques are no doubt holistic, there is no evidence to allow for them to be presented as shamans. Neither did they practice shamanism. The banghluin, anumcara and others in this section are still working their skills in the old countries. I have hoped to accomplish three things in this article. The first is to show that 'shamanism' is not a religion, but rather a technical term used to denote a well-defined set of practices and mythology. Furthermore, it is my hope that I have shown that these practices are but components found within a greater cultural milieu. Without the context of the culture those practices themselves have no purpose, no understanding, no focus. Lastly, I hope that I have shown that we of Gaelic culture do not have to rely on such a vague and misleading title as 'shaman'. To the contrary, each skill and art has a name that holds an understanding, power and full body of knowledge that is its own. These jobs were/are fully empowered by the understandings of their culture. These are what we call those who have done special things in our culture. We have no shamans, and our religion is not 'shamanism'. Special Thanks To: Sarah NicGhilliela/idir Sources: by Iain MacAnTsaoir |
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